In the Greek and Roman worlds, artists across the Mediterranean region produced sculptures of extraordinary realism, articulating physical strength and emotional depth. Thanks to its reflective surface, tensile durability, and capacity to capture intricate details, bronze was employed in dynamic compositions, detailed expressions of age and character, as well as resplendent representations of the human form. This metal facilitated a remarkable surge of artistic innovation, as sculptors liberated themselves from the constraints of classical idealisation. The incorporation of refined details and expressive forms permitted more authentic portrayals of physical and emotional conditions: a pioneering synthesis of power and pathos that significantly shaped art history.
Large-scale bronze sculptures rank among the rarest and most valuable extant works from antiquity. Their valuable metal was typically melted down for reuse. The rows of vacant stone pedestals, still observable at numerous archaeological sites, starkly illustrate both the extensive presence of bronze statuary in classical antiquity and its rarity in contemporary times.
Ironically, many bronzes known today have survived because they were lost at sea, concealed, or buried, and subsequently recovered after many years, sometimes by chance or through archaeological excavations.

The depiction of the human figure constitutes a fundamental element in the artistic traditions of nearly all ancient cultures.
Yet, nowhere else has it gained the same significance or influence on subsequent art history as it did in Greece and Rome. The pinnacle of this artistic expression was achieved during the Hellenistic period, characterised by sculptors' mastery of dramatic effects such as flowing draperies, dishevelled hair, and highly detailed representations of veins, wrinkles, tendons, and muscles. This advancement rendered sculpture the most realistic and emotionally evocative form of human representation ever created, and it remains one of the heights of world art.
The art of bronze-making during the Classical period proliferated extensively, propelled by the expansion of the Greek world under Alexander the Great in the 4th century BCE.
The reach of Hellenistic culture can be observed not only across the Mediterranean- spanning from Italy to Egypt- but also in more distant regions, such as Thrace (Bulgaria), ancient Colchis (Republic of Georgia), and southern Arabia.
Greek itinerant bronze artisans received commissions from territories far from their homeland, while local craftsmen incorporated indigenous techniques to produce sculptures in the contemporary stylistic idioms. Through trade, migration, plunder, and emulation, bronze sculpture has served as a conduit for cultural exchange and technological innovation.

Bronze is an alloy predominantly composed of 90% copper and 10% tin. Due to its lower melting point relative to pure copper, it remains in a molten state for a longer duration during casting in a mould. Additionally, it provides superior casting properties compared to pure copper and exhibits higher tensile strength. Although numerous sources of copper existed across the Mediterranean Basin in ancient Greece and Rome, the island of Cyprus, whose name is derived from the Greek word for copper, was among the most significant. In contrast, tin was imported from distant regions such as southwestern Turkey, Afghanistan, and Cornwall in England.
The initial large-scale Greek bronze statues possessed elementary forms, determined by the manufacturing technique known as sphyrelaton (literally, 'hammered'), wherein individual parts of the statue are cast separately from hammered sheets of metal and subsequently assembled using rivets. These metal sheets were often ornamented by hammering the bronze onto wooden forms to produce reliefs or by engraving designs through a technique called tracing.
During the Late Archaic Period (500-480 BC), the sphyrelaton method was supplanted by lost-wax casting as the primary casting technique, which became the predominant method for creating bronze statues. Bronze lost-wax casting can be executed in three ways: solid lost-wax casting, hollow lost-wax casting employing the direct process, and hollow lost-wax casting utilising the indirect method.
The first of these methods, also the oldest and simplest, involves creating a solid wax model. This model is encased in clay and subjected to heating, which melts the wax and hardens the clay shell. The mold is subsequently inverted, and molten metal is poured into it. Once the metal solidifies, the bronze smith fractures the clay to unveil a solid bronze replica.

Due to the physical properties of bronze that limit the production of large solid castings, the utilisation of solid wax models constrained artisans to craft only diminutive figures. To address this limitation, the ancient Greeks employed the hollow lost-wax casting process to produce large, free-standing bronze statues. Typically, substantial sculptures were cast in multiple sections, such as the head, torso, arms, and legs. In the direct hollow lost-wax casting technique, the sculptor initially constructs a clay core that approximates the intended statue's size and shape. For larger objects, an armature, generally composed of iron rods, is used to provide additional stability to the core. Subsequently, the clay core is coated with wax, incorporating vents to facilitate the flow of molten metal and the escape of gases, thereby ensuring an even casting.
The model is then entirely enveloped by a coarse outer layer of clay and heated to remove all wax, forming a hollow mold. The mold is reheated for an extended period to harden the clay and eradicate any residual wax.
Once completed, the bronzesmith pours molten metal into the mould until it is filled completely. After the bronze has cooled adequately, the mold is broken, and the bronze artefact is prepared for finishing. In the indirect lost-wax casting method, the original model remains intact throughout the casting process. This allows for recasting sections, producing a series of identical statues, and creating large statues in multiple pieces. Owing to these advantages, the majority of large-scale ancient Greek and Roman bronze statues were produced employing the indirect method.

Initially, a model of the statue is crafted from the sculptor's preferred material, typically clay. Subsequently, a mold made of clay or plaster is constructed around the model to replicate its form accurately. This mold is then sectioned into several parts, facilitating removal without damaging the undercut features. Following the drying process, the individual mold segments are disassembled, reassembled, and joined together. Each segment of the mold is subsequently coated with a thin layer of beeswax. Once the wax has cooled, the mould is removed, allowing the artist to verify that all desired details have been accurately transferred from the original model. At this stage, any necessary corrections or additional information can be executed using the wax model. The bronzesmith then attaches a network of funnels, channels, and vents to the wax model, covering the entire structure with one or multiple layers of clay.
Similar to the direct method, the clay mold undergoes heating, followed by the pouring of wax. Subsequently, it is reheated to a higher temperature to bake the clay, and then heated again to facilitate the pouring of molten metal. Upon cooling, the mold is broken to unveil the cast bronze statue. Any protrusions resulting from the sprues are eliminated through trimming of excess material, and minor imperfections are rectified with abrasives.
The separately cast components are subsequently joined through metallurgical and mechanical techniques.
The craftsmanship involved in creating these joints in antiquity stands as one of the most significant achievements of Greek and Roman bronze craftsmanship. During finishing, decorative details such as hair and surface patterns are accentuated through cold working with a chisel.
The ancient Greeks and Romans often incorporated glass or stone eyes, with teeth and nails inlaid with silver, and lips and nipples crafted from copper. These elements enhanced the remarkably lifelike appearance of bronze statues. Given that most ancient bronze statues, with a few exceptions, have been lost or melted down for the reuse of precious metal, marble copies produced during the Roman period serve as the primary visual evidence of the masterpieces created by renowned Greek sculptors.